22.1 Measuring Association

When two variables vary together, we say they are correlated. Understanding whether and how variables are related is fundamental to science—it helps us identify potential causal relationships, make predictions, and understand systems.

Correlation quantifies the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. A positive correlation means that high values of one variable tend to occur with high values of the other. A negative correlation means that high values of one variable tend to occur with low values of the other.

22.2 Covariance

The covariance measures how two variables vary together. If X and Y tend to be above their means at the same time (and below their means at the same time), the covariance is positive. If one tends to be above its mean when the other is below, the covariance is negative.

\[Cov(X, Y) = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i - \bar{x})(y_i - \bar{y})}{n-1}\]

Understanding Covariance Visually

The covariance formula involves products of deviations from the mean. Consider each point in a scatterplot:

  • If a point is in the upper-right quadrant (both X and Y above their means), the product of deviations is positive
  • If a point is in the lower-left quadrant (both below their means), the product is also positive
  • If a point is in the upper-left or lower-right (one above, one below), the product is negative
Code 
# Visualizing covariance with quadrants
set.seed(42)
x <- rnorm(50, mean = 10, sd = 2)
y <- 0.8 * x + rnorm(50, sd = 1.5)

# Calculate means
mean_x <- mean(x)
mean_y <- mean(y)

# Plot with quadrants
plot(x, y, pch = 19, col = "steelblue",
     xlab = "X", ylab = "Y",
     main = "Covariance: Products of Deviations from Means")
abline(v = mean_x, h = mean_y, col = "red", lty = 2, lwd = 2)

# Add quadrant labels
text(max(x) - 0.5, max(y) - 0.5, "(+)(+) = +", col = "darkgreen", cex = 0.9)
text(min(x) + 0.5, min(y) + 0.5, "(-)(−) = +", col = "darkgreen", cex = 0.9)
text(max(x) - 0.5, min(y) + 0.5, "(+)(−) = −", col = "darkred", cex = 0.9)
text(min(x) + 0.5, max(y) - 0.5, "(−)(+) = −", col = "darkred", cex = 0.9)

# Report covariance
cat("Covariance:", round(cov(x, y), 3), "\n")
Covariance: 3.479
Figure 22.1: Visualization of covariance showing how products of deviations from means contribute to the overall covariance, with positive products in upper-right and lower-left quadrants

When points cluster in the positive quadrants (upper-right and lower-left), the covariance is positive. When points cluster in the negative quadrants, the covariance is negative. When points are evenly distributed, covariance is near zero.

The problem with covariance is that its magnitude depends on the scales of X and Y, making it hard to interpret. Is a covariance of 100 strong or weak? It depends entirely on the units of measurement.

22.3 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient

The Pearson correlation coefficient standardizes covariance by dividing by the product of the standard deviations:

\[r = \frac{Cov(X, Y)}{s_X s_Y} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i - \bar{x})(y_i - \bar{y})}{\sqrt{\sum(x_i - \bar{x})^2 \sum(y_i - \bar{y})^2}}\]

This produces a value between -1 and +1:

  • \(r = 1\): perfect positive linear relationship
  • \(r = -1\): perfect negative linear relationship
  • \(r = 0\): no linear relationship
Figure 22.2: Examples of scatterplots with different correlation coefficients ranging from strong positive to strong negative
Code 
# Examples of different correlations
set.seed(42)
n <- 100

par(mfrow = c(2, 2))

# Strong positive
x1 <- rnorm(n)
y1 <- 0.9 * x1 + rnorm(n, sd = 0.4)
plot(x1, y1, main = paste("r =", round(cor(x1, y1), 2)), pch = 19, col = "blue")

# Moderate negative
y2 <- -0.6 * x1 + rnorm(n, sd = 0.8)
plot(x1, y2, main = paste("r =", round(cor(x1, y2), 2)), pch = 19, col = "red")

# No correlation
y3 <- rnorm(n)
plot(x1, y3, main = paste("r =", round(cor(x1, y3), 2)), pch = 19, col = "gray")

# Non-linear relationship (correlation misleading)
x4 <- runif(n, -3, 3)
y4 <- x4^2 + rnorm(n, sd = 0.5)
plot(x4, y4, main = paste("r =", round(cor(x4, y4), 2), "(non-linear!)"), 
     pch = 19, col = "purple")
Figure 22.3: Four scatterplots demonstrating different correlation patterns: strong positive, moderate negative, no correlation, and a non-linear relationship where correlation is misleading

22.4 Anscombe’s Quartet

Francis Anscombe created a famous set of four datasets that all have nearly identical statistical properties—same means, variances, correlations, and regression lines—yet look completely different when plotted. This demonstrates why visualization is essential.

Figure 22.4: Anscombe’s Quartet showing four datasets with identical statistical properties but very different patterns when visualized

Always plot your data before calculating correlations. The correlation coefficient captures only linear relationships and can be misleading for non-linear patterns.

22.5 Testing Correlation

The cor.test() function tests whether a correlation is significantly different from zero:

Code 
# Example: zebrafish length and weight
set.seed(123)
length <- rnorm(50, mean = 2.5, sd = 0.5)
weight <- 10 * length^2 + rnorm(50, sd = 5)

cor.test(length, weight)

    Pearson's product-moment correlation

data:  length and weight
t = 29.857, df = 48, p-value < 2.2e-16
alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 0.9546054 0.9853063
sample estimates:
     cor 
0.974118

The null hypothesis is that the population correlation is zero (\(H_0: \rho = 0\)). A small p-value indicates evidence of a non-zero correlation.

22.6 Sample Correlation as a Random Variable

Just like the sample mean, the sample correlation coefficient is a random variable—it varies from sample to sample. If we could repeatedly draw samples from the same population and compute r for each, we would get a distribution of r values centered around the true population correlation \(\rho\).

This sampling variability has important implications for interpretation. A sample correlation of r = 0.3 from a small study might arise even when the true correlation is zero (or is actually 0.5). Understanding this uncertainty is essential for proper inference.

Code 
# Demonstrate sampling variability of correlation
set.seed(42)

# True population parameters
rho_true <- 0.5  # True population correlation
n_small <- 20
n_large <- 100
n_reps <- 1000

# Function to generate correlated data
generate_correlated_data <- function(n, rho) {
  x <- rnorm(n)
  y <- rho * x + sqrt(1 - rho^2) * rnorm(n)
  return(cor(x, y))
}

# Generate sampling distributions for different sample sizes
r_small <- replicate(n_reps, generate_correlated_data(n_small, rho_true))
r_large <- replicate(n_reps, generate_correlated_data(n_large, rho_true))

# Plot sampling distributions
par(mfrow = c(1, 2))

hist(r_small, breaks = 30, col = "lightblue",
     main = paste("Sampling Distribution of r\n(n =", n_small, ")"),
     xlab = "Sample Correlation", xlim = c(-0.2, 1))
abline(v = rho_true, col = "red", lwd = 2, lty = 2)
abline(v = mean(r_small), col = "blue", lwd = 2)
legend("topleft", legend = c(paste("True ρ =", rho_true),
                              paste("Mean r =", round(mean(r_small), 3))),
       col = c("red", "blue"), lty = c(2, 1), lwd = 2, cex = 0.8)

hist(r_large, breaks = 30, col = "lightgreen",
     main = paste("Sampling Distribution of r\n(n =", n_large, ")"),
     xlab = "Sample Correlation", xlim = c(-0.2, 1))
abline(v = rho_true, col = "red", lwd = 2, lty = 2)
abline(v = mean(r_large), col = "blue", lwd = 2)
legend("topleft", legend = c(paste("True ρ =", rho_true),
                              paste("Mean r =", round(mean(r_large), 3))),
       col = c("red", "blue"), lty = c(2, 1), lwd = 2, cex = 0.8)
Figure 22.5: Sampling distributions of correlation coefficient r for small (n=20) and large (n=100) samples, demonstrating how sample size affects the reliability of correlation estimates

Notice the dramatic difference in variability. With n = 20, sample correlations range widely around the true value—sometimes even appearing negative when the true correlation is 0.5! With n = 100, the distribution is much tighter, and our sample r is a more reliable estimate of \(\rho\).

Code 
# Quantify the variability
cat("True population correlation: ρ =", rho_true, "\n\n")
True population correlation: ρ = 0.5
Code 
cat("With n =", n_small, ":\n")
With n = 20 :
Code 
cat("  Mean of sample r:", round(mean(r_small), 3), "\n")
  Mean of sample r: 0.483
Code 
cat("  SD of sample r:", round(sd(r_small), 3), "\n")
  SD of sample r: 0.181
Code 
cat("  95% of samples give r between", round(quantile(r_small, 0.025), 3),
    "and", round(quantile(r_small, 0.975), 3), "\n\n")
  95% of samples give r between 0.056 and 0.781
Code 
cat("With n =", n_large, ":\n")
With n = 100 :
Code 
cat("  Mean of sample r:", round(mean(r_large), 3), "\n")
  Mean of sample r: 0.497
Code 
cat("  SD of sample r:", round(sd(r_large), 3), "\n")
  SD of sample r: 0.075
Code 
cat("  95% of samples give r between", round(quantile(r_large, 0.025), 3),
    "and", round(quantile(r_large, 0.975), 3), "\n")
  95% of samples give r between 0.347 and 0.634
Practical Implications
  1. Small samples yield unreliable correlations: With n < 30, sample r can differ substantially from \(\rho\)
  2. Confidence intervals are essential: Report CIs to communicate uncertainty, not just the point estimate
  3. Replication matters: A single study with r = 0.4 (n = 25) is consistent with true correlations anywhere from near-zero to quite strong
  4. Publication bias distorts the literature: Studies with “significant” correlations are more likely to be published, inflating effect sizes in the literature

Fisher’s Z-Transformation

The sampling distribution of r is not symmetric, especially when \(\rho\) is far from zero. Fisher’s z-transformation stabilizes the variance and makes the distribution approximately normal:

\[z = \frac{1}{2} \ln\left(\frac{1 + r}{1 - r}\right) = \text{arctanh}(r)\]

The standard error of z is approximately \(\frac{1}{\sqrt{n-3}}\), which depends only on sample size—not on the true correlation. This transformation is used to construct confidence intervals for correlation and to compare correlations across groups.

Code 
# Fisher's z-transformation for confidence interval
r_observed <- 0.6
n <- 50

# Transform to z
z <- atanh(r_observed)  # Same as 0.5 * log((1 + r) / (1 - r))
se_z <- 1 / sqrt(n - 3)

# 95% CI in z scale
z_lower <- z - 1.96 * se_z
z_upper <- z + 1.96 * se_z

# Transform back to r scale
r_lower <- tanh(z_lower)
r_upper <- tanh(z_upper)

cat("Observed r:", r_observed, "with n =", n, "\n")
Observed r: 0.6 with n = 50
Code 
cat("95% CI for ρ: [", round(r_lower, 3), ",", round(r_upper, 3), "]\n")
95% CI for ρ: [ 0.386 , 0.753 ]

22.7 Parametric Assumptions

Pearson’s correlation assumes that both variables are normally distributed (or at least that the relationship is linear and homoscedastic). When these assumptions are violated, nonparametric alternatives may be more appropriate.

22.8 Nonparametric Correlation

Spearman’s rank correlation replaces values with their ranks before calculating correlation. It measures monotonic (consistently increasing or decreasing) rather than strictly linear relationships and is robust to outliers.

Kendall’s tau is another rank-based measure that counts concordant and discordant pairs. It is particularly appropriate for small samples or data with many ties.

Code 
# Compare methods on non-normal data
set.seed(42)
x <- rexp(30, rate = 0.1)
y <- x + rexp(30, rate = 0.2)

cat("Pearson:", round(cor(x, y, method = "pearson"), 3), "\n")
Pearson: 0.764
Code 
cat("Spearman:", round(cor(x, y, method = "spearman"), 3), "\n")
Spearman: 0.808
Code 
cat("Kendall:", round(cor(x, y, method = "kendall"), 3), "\n")
Kendall: 0.623

22.9 Correlation Is Not Causation

A correlation between X and Y might arise because X causes Y, because Y causes X, because a third variable Z causes both, or simply by chance. Correlation alone cannot distinguish these possibilities.

To establish causation, you need experimental manipulation (changing X and observing Y), temporal precedence (X occurs before Y), and ruling out confounding variables. Observational correlations are valuable for generating hypotheses but insufficient for establishing causal relationships.

22.10 Interpreting Correlation Magnitude

While there are no universal standards, these guidelines provide rough interpretation:

r
0.00 - 0.19 Negligible
0.20 - 0.39 Weak
0.40 - 0.59 Moderate
0.60 - 0.79 Strong
0.80 - 1.00 Very strong

Context matters greatly. In physics, correlations below 0.99 might be disappointing. In psychology or ecology, correlations of 0.3 can be considered meaningful.

Coefficient of Determination

The square of the correlation coefficient, \(r^2\), is called the coefficient of determination. It represents the proportion of variance in one variable that is explained by its linear relationship with the other.

If \(r = 0.7\), then \(r^2 = 0.49\), meaning about 49% of the variance in Y is explained by its relationship with X. This leaves 51% unexplained—due to other factors, measurement error, or the relationship not being perfectly linear.

Code 
# Visualize explained vs unexplained variance
set.seed(123)
x <- 1:50
y <- 2 * x + rnorm(50, sd = 15)

r <- cor(x, y)
r_squared <- r^2

cat("Correlation (r):", round(r, 3), "\n")
Correlation (r): 0.901
Code 
cat("R-squared (r²):", round(r_squared, 3), "\n")
R-squared (r²): 0.812
Code 
cat("Variance explained:", round(r_squared * 100, 1), "%\n")
Variance explained: 81.2 %

22.11 Common Pitfalls with Correlation

Watch Out For These Mistakes
  1. Restricted range: If you only sample part of the range of X or Y, correlation will appear weaker than it truly is
  2. Outliers: A single extreme point can dramatically inflate or deflate the correlation
  3. Non-linearity: Correlation only measures linear relationships; a perfect curved relationship can have r ≈ 0
  4. Aggregation effects: Correlations computed on grouped data (e.g., country averages) are often much stronger than correlations on individual data (ecological fallacy)
  5. Confounding: A third variable may create a spurious correlation between X and Y
Code 
# Demonstrating the effect of outliers
set.seed(42)
x_base <- rnorm(30)
y_base <- rnorm(30)

par(mfrow = c(1, 2))

# Without outlier
plot(x_base, y_base, pch = 19, col = "blue",
     main = paste("Without outlier: r =", round(cor(x_base, y_base), 3)),
     xlab = "X", ylab = "Y", xlim = c(-3, 5), ylim = c(-3, 5))

# With outlier
x_out <- c(x_base, 4)
y_out <- c(y_base, 4)
plot(x_out, y_out, pch = 19, col = c(rep("blue", 30), "red"),
     main = paste("With outlier: r =", round(cor(x_out, y_out), 3)),
     xlab = "X", ylab = "Y", xlim = c(-3, 5), ylim = c(-3, 5))
Figure 22.6: Effect of a single outlier on correlation, showing how r changes from near zero to moderately positive with the addition of one extreme point

A single outlier has shifted the correlation from near zero to moderately positive. Always visualize your data and consider robust alternatives like Spearman’s correlation when outliers are present.

22.12 Summary

Correlation quantifies the strength and direction of linear relationships between variables:

  • Covariance measures how variables move together, but depends on units
  • Pearson’s r standardizes covariance to range from -1 to +1
  • Spearman and Kendall provide robust rank-based alternatives
  • Correlation does not imply causation
  • Always visualize data and check for non-linearity and outliers

22.13 Practice Exercises

Exercise L.1: Correlation
  1. Create two correlated variables using simulation
  2. Calculate the Pearson correlation coefficient
  3. Create a scatterplot and add the correlation value
  4. What happens to the correlation when you add outliers?
Code 
set.seed(42)
x <- rnorm(50)
y <- 0.7*x + rnorm(50, sd = 0.5)  # Correlated with x

cor(x, y)
[1] 0.8400841
Code 
plot(x, y, main = paste("Correlation:", round(cor(x, y), 2)))
abline(lm(y ~ x), col = "red")
Figure 22.7: Scatterplot of two correlated variables with fitted regression line
Exercise L.2: Pearson vs. Spearman

Compare Pearson and Spearman correlations:

  1. Generate data with a monotonic but non-linear relationship
  2. Calculate both Pearson and Spearman correlations
  3. Which is more appropriate for your data and why?
Code 
# Monotonic but non-linear
set.seed(42)
x <- 1:50
y <- log(x) + rnorm(50, sd = 0.3)

cor(x, y, method = "pearson")
cor(x, y, method = "spearman")
Exercise L.3: Effect of Outliers

Explore how outliers affect correlation:

  1. Generate correlated data with no outliers—calculate r
  2. Add one extreme outlier—recalculate r
  3. Use Spearman’s correlation on the data with the outlier
  4. What do you conclude about robustness?
Code 
# Your code here
Exercise L.4: Partial Correlation

You have three variables: temperature (T), enzyme activity (E), and pH (P). Both temperature and pH affect enzyme activity.

temperature <- c(20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60)
pH <- c(5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 7.5, 7.0, 6.5)
enzyme_activity <- c(12, 18, 25, 35, 42, 38, 28, 20, 15)
  1. Calculate the correlation between temperature and enzyme activity
  2. Calculate the correlation between pH and enzyme activity
  3. Calculate the correlation between temperature and pH
  4. Fit a multiple regression model predicting enzyme activity from both temperature and pH
  5. Calculate the partial correlation between temperature and enzyme activity (controlling for pH) using the ppcor package or manually from residuals
  6. Interpret the difference between the simple and partial correlations
Code 
# Your code here
# install.packages("ppcor")  # if needed
library(ppcor)
Exercise L.5: Correlation Matrix and Visualization

You have measurements of four morphological traits in a sample of fish:

set.seed(123)
n <- 50
body_length <- rnorm(n, mean = 150, sd = 20)
body_weight <- 0.001 * body_length^3 + rnorm(n, sd = 50)
fin_length <- 0.15 * body_length + rnorm(n, sd = 3)
eye_diameter <- 8 + 0.05 * body_length + rnorm(n, sd = 1)

fish_data <- data.frame(body_length, body_weight, fin_length, eye_diameter)
  1. Calculate the correlation matrix for all four variables
  2. Create a pairs plot (scatterplot matrix) to visualize all pairwise relationships
  3. Use the corrplot package to create a correlation heatmap
  4. Which pairs of variables are most strongly correlated?
  5. For the pair with the strongest correlation, test whether it is significantly different from zero
  6. Are any of the relationships clearly non-linear? How does this affect the correlation coefficient?
Code 
# Your code here
# install.packages("corrplot")  # if needed
library(corrplot)

22.14 Additional Resources

  • Logan (2010) - Detailed coverage of correlation with biological examples
  • James et al. (2023) - Excellent discussion of correlation in the context of statistical learning